题元层级之实质与描写

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  [摘要] 题元层级被认为是一种有吸引力的理论架构,但有关题元层级的构成及其角色的排序等问题还存在许多不同的观点,这些争议主要源自对题元层级实质的忽视和描写方法的不当。从实质上来说,题元层级是对某特定事件结构所反映的局部性经验事实的概括陈述,故将属于不同事件类型的题元角色组合进一个层级进行排序是缺乏理据的。描写题元层级的有效方式是采用基于事件参与者的相对突显关系表征方法,如Dowty的原型角色理论。要正确理解和应用题元层级必须弄清以下两个问题:第一,题元层级背后所揭示的实质是什么,表达的概括是什么?第二,题元层级对语义角色进行排序的理据是否充分?只有弄清楚了这两个问题,才能在用于解释不同现象、基于不同理据而提出的层级之间进行有意义的选择和比较,否则,只会造成对题元层级理解的混乱和误用。
  [关键词] 题元层级; 题元角色; 使役事件; 事件结构; 原型角色理论; 原型角色蕴涵; 论元实现
  The Nature and Construction of Thematic Hierarchy
  Lü Changhong1,2
  (1.School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China;
  2.School of Foreign Languages, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China)
  Abstract: Thematic hierarchies (THs) have been widely used to account for regularities in the linking of thematic and grammatical roles and adopted by proponents of a range of theoretical frameworks. But over them there have been controversies, most of which derive from the failure in understanding the nature a TH reflects or in ranking thematic roles properly. Essentially, a TH is the statement of a local empirical generalization (Levin & Rappaport Hovav 2005), so different THs reflect different generalizations and have different motivations for ranking thematic roles. To explore the nature of a TH, Fillmores (1968) Subject Hierarchy ″agent > instrument > objective (or patient in Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 2005)″ is taken as an example. In fact,the generalization it captures, i.e. ″the structural prominence of causes over patients (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 2005),″ is valid only for causatives, in which a causal chain must be formed among arguments. In causatives, there must be an entity undergoing the conversion from the entity acted on (Ground) into the entity that acts (Figure) (Frawley, 1992), such as the INSTRUMENT shuibeng (water pump) in sentence ″Tamen yong shuibeng chou wushui (They are pumping the sewage).″ The conversion process involves the transmission of force and therefore endues shuibeng with the semantic feature of [+force], which makes shuibeng possess some animate feature. A forcedynamic structure is thus formed in the event: tamen (they) → shuibeng (water pump) → wushui (sewage). Only under this condition, can the INSTRUMENT shuibeng become the subject if there is no AGENT, as in the sentence ″Shuibeng zhengchouzhe wushui (The sewage pump is working now).″ On the other hand, the INSTRUMENT danjia (stretcher) in the sentence ″Tamen yong danjia tai shangyuan (They are carrying the injured on a stretcher)″ doesnt undergo the conversion from Ground to Figure, so no causal chain is formed in the second event: tamen (they) → danjia (stretcher) — shangyuan (the injured), and consequently tai (carry) can not constitute a causative event. Hence the sentence ″*Danjia zhengtaizhe shangyuan (*The stretcher is carrying the injured)″ is unacceptable.   If a TH is simply the statement of a local empirical generalization, there is no underlying motivation for ranking the thematic roles of different event types in a hierarchy, like Chens (1994) Subject Hierarchy: agent > experiencer > instrument > possessor > location > theme > patient. Otherwise, a false prediction about the linking of thematic and grammatical roles might arise. For example, according to Chens Hierarchy, the sentence ″*Danjia zhengtaizhe shangyuan (*The stretcher is carrying the injured)″ is acceptable but in fact it is not. The contradiction results from the fact that Chens Hierarchy mixes types of event and does not respect the fact that ″agent > instrument > objective″ is only the local empirical generalization about a canonical causative.
  With the locality nature of THs, the framework for a particular TH must be local, too. Event structures are adequate frameworks for this purpose, but they should be defined relative to a verb because if the ranking of thematic roles is independent of the event structure defined by the verb, the failure of the TH to predict the result of argument selection might be unavoidable. Of the eventbased construction of THs, Dowtys (1991) protorole theory, ″a reflection of the salience of event participants (Levin, 2005),″ is the right approach to the representation of a TH. The reasons are as follows: (a) it describes the essentially relational nature of thematic roles because what semantic roles define is a type of relations rather than categories, and relations can only be understood in an event; (b) it can more explicitly reflect shared nature or subtle differences between thematic roles, for example, the shared nature of [+change of state] that both EXPERIENCER and PATIENT have; (c) it can avoid the difficulty in identifying and defining discrete roles or the problems caused by granularity of thematic roles. For example, there is no need to identify a new role ″FORCE″ to describe argument Yunshi (a meteorite) in the sentence ″Yunshi ba wuding zale yigedong (A meteorite smashed a hole in the roof)″ as Yuan (2008) suggests, if Yunshi (a meteorite) is defined in terms of a set of entailments of AGENT and INSTRUMENT: {[+volition], [+cause], [+movement]}; (d) it has been empirically proved to have psychological validity.
  Requirements for a proper understanding and application of THs should thus be to determine the nature a TH reflects, the generalization it captures, and whether there is any underlying motivation for the ranking of thematic roles.   Key words: thematic hierarchy; thematic roles; causative event; event structure; protorole theory; protorole entailment; argument realization
  题元层级是题元角色间的自然依存关系,它反映的是某些题元角色与其他角色相比在某一特定的语法角色上被表层化的可能性大小[1]240,是对题元角色与语法角色之间映射规律的一种概括性描述。题元层级被广泛地应用于与论元实现有关的一系列现象的解释中,如主语/宾语选择以及被动化、使役化(causativization)、施用化(applicativization)、序位化(serialization)等形态句法过程中,在词汇功能语法(Lexical Functional Grammar)、功能语法(Functional Grammar)、管辖与约束(Government and Binding)理论及其派生理论,以及角色与指称语法(Role and Reference Grammar)等主要的理论框架中亦得到广泛的应用[2]156157。但是个别文献在借用他人的层级时,未考虑原作者提出这个层级时的背景和条件,或在提出题元层级序列时,未对其描述方法进行恰当的取舍。故本文拟对题元层级的实质进行探讨,并对其描写原则和方法进行分析,以期为正确理解、应用和描写题元层级提供参考。
  一、 题元层级的实质
  尽管题元层级被认为是一种有吸引力的理论架构,但有关题元层级的构成及其角色的排序等问题在学界还存在着许多不同的观点。以目标和处所相对于客事和受事在题元层级中的位置为例,根据Levin和Rappaport Hovav[2]162163的研究,不同学者对此问题的认识存在很大差异。如Belletti和Rizzi(1988)以及Fillmore(1968)的题元层级中根本就没有包含目标和处所,Grimshaw(1990)、Jackendoff(1972)和van Valin(1990)在其层级中将目标/处所置于客事/受事之上,Baker(1989,1997)、CarrierDuncan(1985)、Dik(1978)、Fillmore(1971)、Jackendoff(1990)、Larson(1988)和Speas(1990)却将目标/处所置于客事/受事之下,Bresnan 和Kanerva(1989)、Kiparsky(1985)以及Givón(1984)则将目标置于客事/受事之上,处所置于客事/受事之下文中所列不同学者就目标和处所相对于客事和受事在题元层级中的位置的具体研究,均出自B.Levin & M.R.Hovav, Argument Realization, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005,在本文的参考文献中从略。。除此之外,这些层级中被排序的角色及其颗粒度大小也不同。如Bresnan 和Kanerva区分接受者角色和纯粹的空间目标角色,将所有的空间处所角色(包括空间目标)组合在一起,置于处所角色之下。其他的层级则将接受者角色视为目标角色的一个次类,不将其分离出来。还有一些层级则在空间目标角色和其他空间角色之间进行区分[3]。
  本文认为出现上述现象的主要原因在于以下两点:
  第一,不同层级概括反映的是不同的实质。
  由于不同层级关注的语言现象不同,描述的目的各异[4]70,因此它们所概括反映的语言实质亦不可能相同。故在比较和评价这些层级时,需要弄清这个层级背后的东西究竟是什么,或者说,它究竟是基于什么语言事实而做出的概括。
  以Fillmore的主语选择优先层级“施事>工具>客体格”为例,Fillmore认为非标记的主语选择通常都遵循这一规则[5]33,如(1)a-b句所示。但该层级对(2)b中工具 “担架”做主语的预测无效,使我们不得不进一步思考:Fillmore的这个层级概括反映的究竟是什么经验事实?
  (1) a.他们用水泵抽污水。
  b.水泵正抽着污水呢。
  (2) a.他们用担架抬伤员。
  b.*担架正抬着伤员呢。[6]147
  在Fillmore例示其主语选择序列的句(3)中,主语John和hammer尽管在动物性这一特征上不同,但它们都有一个共同特征,即使因性。(3)a的施事“John”是“broke the window”的直接使因,(3)b的工具“hammer”是该行为的间接使因。也就是说,Fillmore的层级描绘的是使因在结构上总是比受事更突显[2]177,因此在论元选择时具有优先性。
  (3) a.John broke the window with a hammer.(约翰用榔头砸碎了窗玻璃。)
  b.A hammer broke the window.(榔头砸碎了窗玻璃。)[5]22
  在(1)b中,由于工具格“水泵”是“抽”这个行为的间接使因,所以在无施事的情况下,它能做主语。而在(2)b中,工具格“担架”不是“抬”这个行为的使因(无论是直接的还是间接的),故在同样无施事的情况下,它不能做主语,因此在Fillmore的主语选择优先层级的概括范围之外。
  可随之而来的问题是:为什么同为非动物性的工具格,“水泵”和“hammer”可以做间接使因,而“担架”则不行呢?本文认为Frawley关于使役事件的论述可为此问题提供解释。Frawley认为,使役事件包含一个促成事件Ep(precipitating event)和一个结果事件Er(resulting event)。如在The bike fell from the ball hitting it(球把自行车砸倒了)中,Ep为the ball hitting the bike(球击中自行车),Er为the bike falling(自行车倒了)[1]161。使役事件的核心是:其中一个实体(如the bike)应满足以下条件,即从Ep中被作用的实体转变为在Er中施动的实体[1]163。换句话说,该实体(the bike)应从Ep中的背景(ground)转变为Er中的图形(figure),完成Groundep→Figureer的转变。若是间接使役句,则被致使者(即实施结果的实体)还必须具有动物性[1]165。据此,我们来分析上述3句话。句(1)的Ep是“他们开动水泵”,Er是“水泵抽污水”。在句(1)的Ep和Er两个事件中,“水泵”由被“他们”施动的对象转变为施动者。同理,句(3)的Ep是“John acted on the hammer”,Er是“the hammer broke the window”。在这两个事件中“the hammer”也经历了从被施动的对象到施动者的转变。正是这种转变使工具格“水泵”和“hammer”具有了施动者的部分特征,即[+动力]的语义特征。这个[+动力]特征使其接近于动物性,故它们可作间接使因。由此,在动词“抽”和“break”所构建的事件结构中,论元“他们”、“水泵”和“污水”,以及“John”、“hammer”和“window”之间就形成了一种“动力结构关系”(forcedynamic structure)[78],如(4)和(5)所示。而动词“抬”构成的并不是典型的使役句,在句(2)中,“担架”没有经历这种转变,未能被赋予[+动力]特性,因而与论元“他们”和“伤员”在“抬”事件结构中,不能形成一条完整的“使因链”(causal chain)[78],如(6)所示。故“担架”不能作间接使因,例句(2)b不能成立。
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