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【Abstract】The principles of grammatical concord，notional concord and proximity are the three widely accepted basic principles guiding the subject-verb concord of number in English，while most people feel confused in real uses and analyses of the three principles By analysing different examples of English sentences，this paper put forward the view that notional concord is the primary one which we should use to analyse most English sentences.
【Key words】notional concord； subject-verb concord； primary principle
【摘要】语法一致、概念一致和就近一致是长久以来英语主谓一致的三个基本原则，然而在实际运用中，人们总是对三者如何取舍很困惑。本文通过对各种英语例句的分析后提出，概念一致应为使用英语和分析英语时的首要原则。
【关键词】概念一致 主谓一致 首要原则
I.Introduction
The three principles guiding the subject - verb concord of number in English，suggested by Quirk and his collaborators have been widely accepted and introduced by the Chinese scholars in their textbooks of grammar.They are the principle of grammatical concord，the principle of notional concord and the principle of proximity.From the philosophical point of view，notional concord is concerned with the semantic meaning of a sentence，i.e.the content of language，whereas grammatical concord or the proximity principle is concerned with the syntactical structure of a sentence，i.e.the form of language.Content and form are a mutually dependent and complementary unity of opposites.Content determines form while form reflects content.Based on the above and following analysis，the author put forward the view that notional concord principle is the primary principle in guiding subject - verb concord in English.
II.Exemplification of notional concord in various English sentences
There are a lot of examples showing that the notional concord is underlining the superficial presentation of sentences.Here I sorted them into four parts—the sentences with noun as subject，with noun phrase as subject，with coordinate construction as subject，and with clause as subject-to exemplify the primary use of notional concord.
1.Sentences with noun as subjects
1.1.Uncountable nouns including those end with “–s” should be followed by singular verbs since they mean single species：
Music is a universal language.
No news is good news.
1.2.Countable nouns used as subjects
Usually the form of verb depends on the ending of subject noun，according to the principle of grammatical concord：
My daughter watches television after supper.
My daughters watch television after supper. But as for noun that has the same singular form as plural form，the form of verb should be determined by the contextual meaning of noun subject：
My gold fish has died.（One fish）
My gold fish have died.（More than one fish）
The only means to achieve success is to apply to arms.
All means have been tried out to increase agricultural production.
Those nouns often appear in plural forms have connotations of plurality although they are abstract nouns：
His thanks were most profuse.
High wages often result in high prices.
1.3.Collective nouns used as subjects
A collective noun was defined as a noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals considered as one complete whole.It is therefore naturally regarded as being singular and as such takes a singular verb.But，when the parts or members that compose the thing denoted by the collective noun are thought of individually，a plural form may be used：
The present government that has not been in power long，is trying to control inflation.It is not having much success.（The government is taken as one organization）
The government，who are looking for a quick victory，are calling for a general election soon.They expect to be reelected.A lot of people are giving them their support.（The word government refers to all its members） .
The data is a red flag ...
These data are valuable ...（Biber et al.1999，181）
The United States is a country of people with varied origins.（The US refers to one political entity.）
The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.（The Himalayas refers to a range of mountains.）
Forms of verbs followed depend on the actual meanings that writer want to convey：
The British people is （are） notoriously fond of sport.
That is a people who have （has） little in common with us.
The poultry are being fed.
All the poultry in the district has been affected by fowl pest .
2.Complex noun phrases used as subjects
Here the subjects are mainly those noun phrases containing prepositions.The verb may agree with the pre-prepositional noun or post-prepositional noun，according to the notion subject conveys.Among the NPs，the majority are those containing “of”，which I will pay more attention to.
2.1.NPs containing the preposition “of” used as subjects
2.1.1.The pre-prepositional noun determines the form of verb （1）“A pair/couple/portion/pile/panel/ series，etc. of N.”
When the singularity of the subject is stressed，the verb takes singular form：
A pair of glasses costs quite a lot these days.
A series of accidents has been reported.
But if the plural notional subject is emphasized，the verb takes plural form：
A pair of thieves were conspiring to rob us.（Wang 1999：168）
A couple of golden monkeys from China are now on display in Seattle，Washington，USA.
（2）“A/ This/ That/ These/ Those kind/ sort/ type of N.”
When the form of pre-prepositional noun is consistent with post-prepositional one，both the notional concord and grammatical concord are followed：
There is a kind of rose in the garden，which fills the air with fragrance when May comes.
When the post-prepositional noun is plural，the verb can be either singular or plural：
This kind/ sort of apples is （are） highly priced.
This kind of men is （are） dangerous.
When the kind refers to more than two people or things，the verb should be plural：
The kind of apples you mean are large and sour.（Wang 1999：108-109）
2.1.2.Form of verb is determined by post-prepositional noun that either as plural notional subject or as singular notional subject.
（1）“Fraction of N”
Two thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed.
Thirty five percent of the doctors were women.
（2） “All/ Most/ Half/ Some/ None，etc. of N.”
Some of the money has been stolen.
Some of the books were lost.
（3）“Plenty/ lots/ heaps，etc. of N.”
When the N is uncountable，the verb is singular.While the N is countable，the verb is plural.
Lots of food is going to waste.
Lots of people are waiting outside.（Wang 1999：118-119）
（4） “A（n）/the average/ majority of N.”
This kind of NPs is usually used as plural notional subject that requires a plural verb.When it is viewed as a whole，the verb is singular：
An average of 25 persons apply each month.
An average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.（Wang 1999：115，116）
The usage can be demonstrated by the research done by Van Shaik and Farhady：
A majority of votes （is-81%； are-19%） needed to win.（Van Shaik，1976）
The majority of Democrats （are-80%； is-20%） opposed to local blackouts of the Game of the Week （Farhady）.
3.Coordinate constructions used as subjects There are two types of coordinate constructions，one of which is connected by “and”，and the other is by “or”.They either mark juxtaposition or indicate choice making.
3.1.“And” constructions used as subjects
When the construction means more than two perpons or things，the verb form is plural：
Tom and Mary are now ready.
His camera，his radio，and his money were confiscated by the customs officials.
Both Pauline and her son Bob have gone fishing in Canada.
While the things are taken as a whole，the verb should be singular：
This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected at the Queen’s express wish.
The Stars and Stripes is the national flag of the US.
Fish and chips is a popular meal in Britain.
The constructions below are usually taken as singular according to the principle of grammatical concord and proximity，while people nowadays tend to take them as plural：
A lice as well as Jane were there.
The headmaster with the rest of the staff were having a heated discussion.
3.2.“Or” constructions used as subjects
In this kind of sentence，the choice is needed to make between the two subjects.In accord with the principle of Proximity，the verb agrees with the noun closest to it：
Jogging or swimming is supposed to be good for the heart.
Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.
Not only one，but all of us are hoping to be there.
Not only the students but also their teacher is enjoying the film.
But according to some studies，English men also use plural verb in this kind of sentences：
Either you or I are going.
If either David or Janet come，they will want a drink.
Snuff or fan supply each pause of chat （Wang 1999：81-82）.
4.Clauses used as subjects
4.1.Nonrestrictive clause
Nonrestrictive clause is often taken as uncountable noun with a singular meaning，hence the verb usually takes singular form：
Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.
To treat them as hostages is criminal.
4.2.Restrictive clause
The restrictive clause used as subject is usually taken as a single notion，and requires singular verb：
That she is still alive is a consolation to us all.
Whether he has signed the contract （or not ） does not matter.
But some tendency shows that the plural verb also can be used depending on the notion speaker or writer want to convey： What matters most is good health.
Whatever ideas he has are his wife’s.
What we need most is/are books.
III.Conclusion
As listed above，subject-verb concord in many sentences originally determined by the principle of grammatical concord or proximity is actually guided by the notion people assume or convey.Therefore，the principle of notional concord becomes the most important in guiding subject - verb concord in English.Just as Quirk，et al.stated：
（1）The principle of GRAMMATICAL CONCORD tends to be followed in formal usage and has the sanction of teaching and editorial tradition.
（2）The principle of NOTIONAL CONCORD is most natural to colloquial English.
（3）The principle of PROXIMITY，despite its minor decisive role in cases where the other two provide no guidance，is generally felt to lack validity on its own，and has more of an auxiliary role in supporting notional concord in colloquial speech.Grammatical and notional concord generally work in harmony together.It is only occasionally that these principles are in conflict.（Quirk，et al.1985： 766-767）
In a word，the language is used to express ideas.If one wants to imply a notion of single and complete whole，he can take a singular verb； however，if he wants to convey a plural meaning，he can use a plural verb.The notional concord should be firstly taken into account in subject-verb agreement.
References：
[1]Biber，Douglas，Stig Johansson，Geoffrey Leech，Susan Conrad，and Edward Finegan.Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English[Z].London： Longman.1999.
[2]Quirk，R.et al.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[Z].New York： Longman Inc.1985.
[3]Quirk，R.and Greenbaum，S.A University Grammar of English[Z].London： Longman Group Limited.1974.
[4]林六辰.对句子主谓数的一致问题的思考[J].洛阳师范学院学报.2000（4）： 120-130.
[5]王福祯.英语主谓一致[M].北京： 世界图书出版社.1999.
作者简介：胡敏（1981—），女，重庆开县人，硕士，重庆工商大学助教。研究方向：应用语言学，认知语言学。
【Key words】notional concord； subject-verb concord； primary principle
【摘要】语法一致、概念一致和就近一致是长久以来英语主谓一致的三个基本原则，然而在实际运用中，人们总是对三者如何取舍很困惑。本文通过对各种英语例句的分析后提出，概念一致应为使用英语和分析英语时的首要原则。
【关键词】概念一致 主谓一致 首要原则
I.Introduction
The three principles guiding the subject - verb concord of number in English，suggested by Quirk and his collaborators have been widely accepted and introduced by the Chinese scholars in their textbooks of grammar.They are the principle of grammatical concord，the principle of notional concord and the principle of proximity.From the philosophical point of view，notional concord is concerned with the semantic meaning of a sentence，i.e.the content of language，whereas grammatical concord or the proximity principle is concerned with the syntactical structure of a sentence，i.e.the form of language.Content and form are a mutually dependent and complementary unity of opposites.Content determines form while form reflects content.Based on the above and following analysis，the author put forward the view that notional concord principle is the primary principle in guiding subject - verb concord in English.
II.Exemplification of notional concord in various English sentences
There are a lot of examples showing that the notional concord is underlining the superficial presentation of sentences.Here I sorted them into four parts—the sentences with noun as subject，with noun phrase as subject，with coordinate construction as subject，and with clause as subject-to exemplify the primary use of notional concord.
1.Sentences with noun as subjects
1.1.Uncountable nouns including those end with “–s” should be followed by singular verbs since they mean single species：
Music is a universal language.
No news is good news.
1.2.Countable nouns used as subjects
Usually the form of verb depends on the ending of subject noun，according to the principle of grammatical concord：
My daughter watches television after supper.
My daughters watch television after supper. But as for noun that has the same singular form as plural form，the form of verb should be determined by the contextual meaning of noun subject：
My gold fish has died.（One fish）
My gold fish have died.（More than one fish）
The only means to achieve success is to apply to arms.
All means have been tried out to increase agricultural production.
Those nouns often appear in plural forms have connotations of plurality although they are abstract nouns：
His thanks were most profuse.
High wages often result in high prices.
1.3.Collective nouns used as subjects
A collective noun was defined as a noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals considered as one complete whole.It is therefore naturally regarded as being singular and as such takes a singular verb.But，when the parts or members that compose the thing denoted by the collective noun are thought of individually，a plural form may be used：
The present government that has not been in power long，is trying to control inflation.It is not having much success.（The government is taken as one organization）
The government，who are looking for a quick victory，are calling for a general election soon.They expect to be reelected.A lot of people are giving them their support.（The word government refers to all its members） .
The data is a red flag ...
These data are valuable ...（Biber et al.1999，181）
The United States is a country of people with varied origins.（The US refers to one political entity.）
The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.（The Himalayas refers to a range of mountains.）
Forms of verbs followed depend on the actual meanings that writer want to convey：
The British people is （are） notoriously fond of sport.
That is a people who have （has） little in common with us.
The poultry are being fed.
All the poultry in the district has been affected by fowl pest .
2.Complex noun phrases used as subjects
Here the subjects are mainly those noun phrases containing prepositions.The verb may agree with the pre-prepositional noun or post-prepositional noun，according to the notion subject conveys.Among the NPs，the majority are those containing “of”，which I will pay more attention to.
2.1.NPs containing the preposition “of” used as subjects
2.1.1.The pre-prepositional noun determines the form of verb （1）“A pair/couple/portion/pile/panel/ series，etc. of N.”
When the singularity of the subject is stressed，the verb takes singular form：
A pair of glasses costs quite a lot these days.
A series of accidents has been reported.
But if the plural notional subject is emphasized，the verb takes plural form：
A pair of thieves were conspiring to rob us.（Wang 1999：168）
A couple of golden monkeys from China are now on display in Seattle，Washington，USA.
（2）“A/ This/ That/ These/ Those kind/ sort/ type of N.”
When the form of pre-prepositional noun is consistent with post-prepositional one，both the notional concord and grammatical concord are followed：
There is a kind of rose in the garden，which fills the air with fragrance when May comes.
When the post-prepositional noun is plural，the verb can be either singular or plural：
This kind/ sort of apples is （are） highly priced.
This kind of men is （are） dangerous.
When the kind refers to more than two people or things，the verb should be plural：
The kind of apples you mean are large and sour.（Wang 1999：108-109）
2.1.2.Form of verb is determined by post-prepositional noun that either as plural notional subject or as singular notional subject.
（1）“Fraction of N”
Two thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed.
Thirty five percent of the doctors were women.
（2） “All/ Most/ Half/ Some/ None，etc. of N.”
Some of the money has been stolen.
Some of the books were lost.
（3）“Plenty/ lots/ heaps，etc. of N.”
When the N is uncountable，the verb is singular.While the N is countable，the verb is plural.
Lots of food is going to waste.
Lots of people are waiting outside.（Wang 1999：118-119）
（4） “A（n）/the average/ majority of N.”
This kind of NPs is usually used as plural notional subject that requires a plural verb.When it is viewed as a whole，the verb is singular：
An average of 25 persons apply each month.
An average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.（Wang 1999：115，116）
The usage can be demonstrated by the research done by Van Shaik and Farhady：
A majority of votes （is-81%； are-19%） needed to win.（Van Shaik，1976）
The majority of Democrats （are-80%； is-20%） opposed to local blackouts of the Game of the Week （Farhady）.
3.Coordinate constructions used as subjects There are two types of coordinate constructions，one of which is connected by “and”，and the other is by “or”.They either mark juxtaposition or indicate choice making.
3.1.“And” constructions used as subjects
When the construction means more than two perpons or things，the verb form is plural：
Tom and Mary are now ready.
His camera，his radio，and his money were confiscated by the customs officials.
Both Pauline and her son Bob have gone fishing in Canada.
While the things are taken as a whole，the verb should be singular：
This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected at the Queen’s express wish.
The Stars and Stripes is the national flag of the US.
Fish and chips is a popular meal in Britain.
The constructions below are usually taken as singular according to the principle of grammatical concord and proximity，while people nowadays tend to take them as plural：
A lice as well as Jane were there.
The headmaster with the rest of the staff were having a heated discussion.
3.2.“Or” constructions used as subjects
In this kind of sentence，the choice is needed to make between the two subjects.In accord with the principle of Proximity，the verb agrees with the noun closest to it：
Jogging or swimming is supposed to be good for the heart.
Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.
Not only one，but all of us are hoping to be there.
Not only the students but also their teacher is enjoying the film.
But according to some studies，English men also use plural verb in this kind of sentences：
Either you or I are going.
If either David or Janet come，they will want a drink.
Snuff or fan supply each pause of chat （Wang 1999：81-82）.
4.Clauses used as subjects
4.1.Nonrestrictive clause
Nonrestrictive clause is often taken as uncountable noun with a singular meaning，hence the verb usually takes singular form：
Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.
To treat them as hostages is criminal.
4.2.Restrictive clause
The restrictive clause used as subject is usually taken as a single notion，and requires singular verb：
That she is still alive is a consolation to us all.
Whether he has signed the contract （or not ） does not matter.
But some tendency shows that the plural verb also can be used depending on the notion speaker or writer want to convey： What matters most is good health.
Whatever ideas he has are his wife’s.
What we need most is/are books.
III.Conclusion
As listed above，subject-verb concord in many sentences originally determined by the principle of grammatical concord or proximity is actually guided by the notion people assume or convey.Therefore，the principle of notional concord becomes the most important in guiding subject - verb concord in English.Just as Quirk，et al.stated：
（1）The principle of GRAMMATICAL CONCORD tends to be followed in formal usage and has the sanction of teaching and editorial tradition.
（2）The principle of NOTIONAL CONCORD is most natural to colloquial English.
（3）The principle of PROXIMITY，despite its minor decisive role in cases where the other two provide no guidance，is generally felt to lack validity on its own，and has more of an auxiliary role in supporting notional concord in colloquial speech.Grammatical and notional concord generally work in harmony together.It is only occasionally that these principles are in conflict.（Quirk，et al.1985： 766-767）
In a word，the language is used to express ideas.If one wants to imply a notion of single and complete whole，he can take a singular verb； however，if he wants to convey a plural meaning，he can use a plural verb.The notional concord should be firstly taken into account in subject-verb agreement.
References：
[1]Biber，Douglas，Stig Johansson，Geoffrey Leech，Susan Conrad，and Edward Finegan.Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English[Z].London： Longman.1999.
[2]Quirk，R.et al.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[Z].New York： Longman Inc.1985.
[3]Quirk，R.and Greenbaum，S.A University Grammar of English[Z].London： Longman Group Limited.1974.
[4]林六辰.对句子主谓数的一致问题的思考[J].洛阳师范学院学报.2000（4）： 120-130.
[5]王福祯.英语主谓一致[M].北京： 世界图书出版社.1999.
作者简介：胡敏（1981—），女，重庆开县人，硕士，重庆工商大学助教。研究方向：应用语言学，认知语言学。