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Abstract： Metaphor is one of the most poetic forms of language. It is widely used in daily life and good translation of it is of great significance. In spite of the cultural and lingual hindrance， to some extent， good translation of metaphors can be achieved because of the similarities between two cultures and the overlaps of two languages. This paper explores translatability of metaphores from cultural and linguistic perspectives as well as specific techniques in terms of metaphor translation.
Key words： metaphor；translatability；techniques
I. Introduction
Metaphors， as an organic combination of the functions of information and aesthetics， are one of the most poetic forms of language. They are widely used in English literary works， news reports， commercial advertisements， etc. It is no exaggeration to say that we can not efficiently express ourselves without using metaphors. Metaphors can help to enhance the influence on the readers， listeners or the audience through their vivid description. Metaphors are also a powerful tool for us to explore， to understand and to explain some new situations in science， in society， in psychology and in some other academic fields. Metaphors used in literary works can stimulate our imagination and represent the ordinary experience in daily life with refreshing opinions or angles.
Metaphors are one kind of analogies in English. They are defined by Grahamd Low as follows： Treating X as if it were， in some ways Y. Namely， a metaphor is to describe one thing by associating it with another according to their similarities in some respects. The basic pattern is： X is Y. For example： “Life is a stage” or “Her face is a red apple”. In rhetoric， X is called “tenor” and Y “vehicle”. The basic pattern seems very simple， but it is not easy to be figured out and hence， translated due to its unique features， namely， flexibility， ambiguity， convention， innovatability， nationality.
II. Translatability of Metaphors
What is translatability？ In the Dictionary of Translation Studies edited by Mark Shuttle & Moria Cowie， it is defined as “ a term—along with its opposites， untranslatability—to discuss the extent to which it is possible to translate either individual words and phrases or entire texts from one language to another.” In the case of metaphor translation， translatability is more of a continuum than an opposite to untranslatability as a result of the diverse degrees of cultural and linguistic similarities and differences between the source and the target languages. 2.1 From Cultural Perspective
Language and culture are closely related to each other. Language mirrors culture； culture is the foundation of language. As a result of cultural similarities and differences， the target language may correspond to the source language in the following three ways： in full correspondance， in semi-correspondance or in non-correspondance. Translation is， in essence， an act of intercultural communication， and the translation of language is the translation of culture. Whether a metaphor is culturally “translatable” （i.e. whether literal translation could create identical associations in the target language）， how difficult it is to translate， how it can be translated and whether it should be translated at all cannot be decided by a set of abstract rules， but must depend on the structure and function of the particular metaphor within the cultural context concerned. Accordingly， during the process of metaphor translation， the translator should try to flexibly keep the cultural features while translating meaning.
Regardless of racial， geological and religious differences， people from different cultures， in a sense， have much identical understanding of the nature. After all， we human beings live on the same objective world， and our living environment， such as ecological environment and climate change， as well as our own bodies provide us with the possibility to have the same understanding of the outside world and ourselves. Meanwhile， people tend to construct the world experiences with much the same cognitive structures. These similarities account for the cultural overlaps between the source and the target language， which， to a great extent， help people understand and accept metaphors that are fresh to them. For example， in Chinese， we use“丢脸”to express the meaning of losing fame or feeling humiliation， which has the very English equivalent of “losing fame”. Udoubtedly， the literal translation of the metaphor in question triggers the same image in the audience’s mind， in which case full translatability can be achived. The same is true of similar expressions as “ An eye for an eye， a tooth for a tooth”（以眼还眼，以牙还牙），“to be armed to the tooth” （武装到牙齿），“white terror （白色恐怖）”， “chain reaction （连锁反应）”， etc.
Nevertheless， a culturally divergent language pair will often challenge translators with a high degree of untranslatability. More often than not， translators are perplexed by the mismatch or total loss of cultural connotations in translating metaphors. As we know， cultures differ greatly in geological and natural conditions， traditions， customs and ways of life. The cultural differences directly influence the thinking mode and value orientation of human beings， thus become the main reason for the differences of metaphorical concepts of the two languages. For example， in English， the word “shark” is often used to refer to a dishonest businessman or a swindler as in “She entrusted all her savings to a shark who had promised to double her money” ， while the Chinese regard it as an ordinary animal and attch no connotation to it. Both Chinese and English associate certain qualities with certain features of objects to arouse certain reactions or emotions. For example， in English， such expressions are familiar to us： as blind as a bat， as crazy as a bat， both of which arouse negative feellings toward the animal. In Chinese culture， however， bat is an animal symbolic of good fortune， well-being and happiness. The reason may be that the name of the creature is pronouncd the same as the word “福”. In a nutshell， cultural factors surface from the confrontation of cultural deposits of one language with another in translation and therefore， determine the degree of translatability of metaphors and demand decisions on the part of translators.
2.2 From Linguistic Perspective
In terms of the interrelation between world languages， Nida holds that at least 90 percent of the basic underlying structures in current languages bear the same or similar features， and that language universals far outweigh the divergences. This unity of language enables messages conveyed in one language to transfer to another language. The above mentioned “losing face” is a case in point. Besides， the innate flexbility and compatibility of one language endows it with capability of directly or indirectly expressing meanings encoded in another language. For example， in the sentence “ Last term， I met my Waterloo in my English examination.” Waterloo is the Italian town where Napoleon encountered failure in 1842， hence attached with a symbolic meaning of “failure” ， which is adopted and widely recognized by Chinese people. In this case， literal translation is preferred： 上学期，我在英语考试中遭遇了滑铁卢。In other words， the metaphor “Waterloo” is translatable despite its original absence in Chinese.
However， it is not uncommon there are terms in one language that do not have counterparts in the other language， or terms with some associative and connotative meanings in one language but with no connotation in the other. For example， in the sentence “ Don’t show the white feather to the enemy”， “white feather” has the metaphorical meaning “timidess， cowardness”， but in Chinese “白色羽毛” does not trigger such an image in the readers’ mind. Another key constraint of language difference on translation lies in the phonological dimension. Take the following headline in a news report of the 2006 World Cup football match as an example： “Zidane’s a Hero to Zero”. If the headline is translated as “齐达内，从英雄到零”， the linguistic beauty in rhythem and form is totally lost， though the meaning is roughly conveyed to the target audience.
III. Techniques of Translating Metaphors
The translatability of metaphors is limited， but it does not mean that metaphors can not be translated. In fact， the degree of translatability is decided by the specific language situation. The translatability of metaphor is objective and can be achieved through subjective effort. Here are some techniques suggested for the translation of metaphors： 3.1 Retaining the Image （Absolute Literal Translation）
The analogical images of metaphors are very important， so translators should try to retain them. The images retained are not necessarily within the limit of semantic and cultural range because any language has its elasticity to interpret another language. This method of translation is applicable to the literal translation：
1） Retaining the metaphoric meaning， the image and the way of modifying：
Some books are to be tasted， others to be swallowed， and some few to be chewed and digested. （Francis Bacon）
书有浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼。
Our state to be disjoint and out of frame. （Shakespeare， Hamlet）
我们国家突然脱了节，脱了榫。
2） Retaining the image of source language and pointing out the metaphoric meanings：
Sometimes he was extravagant to downright nonsense， but with someone the glittering dross passed current for pure gold.
有时他信口雌黄，但对于有些人来说，那些漂亮话却成了金玉良言。
That guy Morrow was about as sensitive as a goddam toiled seat.
莫罗那小子就和讨厌的马桶坐垫一样麻木不仁。
3） Changing the metaphor in source language into a simile in target language：
It was two thirty of a summer afternoon， and this busy hive of industry generally tended to slacken off at that hour. （P. G Wodehouse）
时值夏季，下午两点三十分，这个本来一窝蜂似的地方照例也有点优哉游哉了。
Britain’s economic policy is now being pulled by the magnet of the next election. （The Economist）
下一次大选磁铁般地牵引着英国的经济政策。
4） Retaining the image of source language and footnoting some additional explanation. This method is used when the degree of translatability is low.
Even before they were acquainted， he had admired Osborn in secret. Now he was his valet， his dog， his man Friday. （M. W. Thackeray， Vanity Fair）
在他没有认识奥斯本之前，已经暗暗佩服他。如今便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五。
Translator footnotes that the character Friday is from Robinson Crusoe and that he is the loyal servant of Robinson， otherwise the readers will not accept the translation.
3.2 Changing the Image （Relative Literal Translation）
As mentioned above， when the degree of translatability of metaphors is low， the analogical images can not be retained， so in order to reserve the information carried by the source language， the translator can replace it with another image which can be better understood by Chinese people and can help them have the same aesthetic sense as the natives do. For example：
Also， he had money in his pocket， and， in the old days when a pay day， he made the money fly. 还有，当他口袋里有钱的时候，像过去发薪的日子一样，他挥金如土。
By the time he was thirty-five he had a large and a lucrative practice， he had amassed a competence， and he stood on the threshold of a distinguished career.
他35岁时就门庭如市，收入可观，累累胜诉，声名显赫，前程似锦。
When replacing the original images， the translator should specially take care that some very typical Chinese metaphors should be avoided； otherwise the translation will be dubious and even funny. For example， if we translate "to hold a candle to the devil" into “助纣为虐”， the readers will be puzzled： Is there also a tyrant called Zhou in English history？
3.3 Abandoning the Image （Free Translation）
If the images of source language can neither be retained nor be replaced， the only way is to abandon them and reproduce the information with some plain words. Of course， inevitably， the original aesthetic feelings may disappear， so what the translator should do is just trying to take full advantage of Chinese and choose some impressive words to make up for the loss. In this case， four-word idioms are good choices. There are many examples of this kind. For instance， we translate “armed to teeth” into “全副武装”， “as cold as ice” into “天寒地冻”. It is also the case with the following sentences：
The ship plows the sea. 船乘风破浪地前进。
By the winter of 1942 their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow.
到了1942年冬季，他们对纳粹恐怖统治的抵抗已经名存实亡了。
It’s very plain the old man and I will remain at daggers drawn to the end of our lives， and that I have nothing to expect from him. （Charles Dickens）
IV. Conclusion
The translation of metaphors is not so easy a task that we can fulfill with all the requirements and techniques. As metaphors have rich cultural connotations， in order to achieve successful translation of English metaphors， a translator should cultivate and continually enhance his own cultural awareness. This requires a translator to have both bilingual competence and bicultural or even multi-cultural knowledge in order to adapt to effective communication in different cultural context.
Bibliography
1. Low Ganhamd. “On Teaching Metaphor” in Applied Linguistics， Vol. 9， No.2. Oxford： Oxford University Press， 1988.
2. Mark Shuttle-worth & Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies. St.Jerome Publishing， 1997.
3. 郭文涛，从美学角度看英语比喻的对等翻译，《外国语》，1996年第2期。
4. 束定方，隐喻学研究[M]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000。
5. 叶子南，高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]。北京： 清华大学出版社，2001。
作者简介：邱采真（1966—），女，硕士，副教授，研究方向：语言学、英语教学法。
Key words： metaphor；translatability；techniques
I. Introduction
Metaphors， as an organic combination of the functions of information and aesthetics， are one of the most poetic forms of language. They are widely used in English literary works， news reports， commercial advertisements， etc. It is no exaggeration to say that we can not efficiently express ourselves without using metaphors. Metaphors can help to enhance the influence on the readers， listeners or the audience through their vivid description. Metaphors are also a powerful tool for us to explore， to understand and to explain some new situations in science， in society， in psychology and in some other academic fields. Metaphors used in literary works can stimulate our imagination and represent the ordinary experience in daily life with refreshing opinions or angles.
Metaphors are one kind of analogies in English. They are defined by Grahamd Low as follows： Treating X as if it were， in some ways Y. Namely， a metaphor is to describe one thing by associating it with another according to their similarities in some respects. The basic pattern is： X is Y. For example： “Life is a stage” or “Her face is a red apple”. In rhetoric， X is called “tenor” and Y “vehicle”. The basic pattern seems very simple， but it is not easy to be figured out and hence， translated due to its unique features， namely， flexibility， ambiguity， convention， innovatability， nationality.
II. Translatability of Metaphors
What is translatability？ In the Dictionary of Translation Studies edited by Mark Shuttle & Moria Cowie， it is defined as “ a term—along with its opposites， untranslatability—to discuss the extent to which it is possible to translate either individual words and phrases or entire texts from one language to another.” In the case of metaphor translation， translatability is more of a continuum than an opposite to untranslatability as a result of the diverse degrees of cultural and linguistic similarities and differences between the source and the target languages. 2.1 From Cultural Perspective
Language and culture are closely related to each other. Language mirrors culture； culture is the foundation of language. As a result of cultural similarities and differences， the target language may correspond to the source language in the following three ways： in full correspondance， in semi-correspondance or in non-correspondance. Translation is， in essence， an act of intercultural communication， and the translation of language is the translation of culture. Whether a metaphor is culturally “translatable” （i.e. whether literal translation could create identical associations in the target language）， how difficult it is to translate， how it can be translated and whether it should be translated at all cannot be decided by a set of abstract rules， but must depend on the structure and function of the particular metaphor within the cultural context concerned. Accordingly， during the process of metaphor translation， the translator should try to flexibly keep the cultural features while translating meaning.
Regardless of racial， geological and religious differences， people from different cultures， in a sense， have much identical understanding of the nature. After all， we human beings live on the same objective world， and our living environment， such as ecological environment and climate change， as well as our own bodies provide us with the possibility to have the same understanding of the outside world and ourselves. Meanwhile， people tend to construct the world experiences with much the same cognitive structures. These similarities account for the cultural overlaps between the source and the target language， which， to a great extent， help people understand and accept metaphors that are fresh to them. For example， in Chinese， we use“丢脸”to express the meaning of losing fame or feeling humiliation， which has the very English equivalent of “losing fame”. Udoubtedly， the literal translation of the metaphor in question triggers the same image in the audience’s mind， in which case full translatability can be achived. The same is true of similar expressions as “ An eye for an eye， a tooth for a tooth”（以眼还眼，以牙还牙），“to be armed to the tooth” （武装到牙齿），“white terror （白色恐怖）”， “chain reaction （连锁反应）”， etc.
Nevertheless， a culturally divergent language pair will often challenge translators with a high degree of untranslatability. More often than not， translators are perplexed by the mismatch or total loss of cultural connotations in translating metaphors. As we know， cultures differ greatly in geological and natural conditions， traditions， customs and ways of life. The cultural differences directly influence the thinking mode and value orientation of human beings， thus become the main reason for the differences of metaphorical concepts of the two languages. For example， in English， the word “shark” is often used to refer to a dishonest businessman or a swindler as in “She entrusted all her savings to a shark who had promised to double her money” ， while the Chinese regard it as an ordinary animal and attch no connotation to it. Both Chinese and English associate certain qualities with certain features of objects to arouse certain reactions or emotions. For example， in English， such expressions are familiar to us： as blind as a bat， as crazy as a bat， both of which arouse negative feellings toward the animal. In Chinese culture， however， bat is an animal symbolic of good fortune， well-being and happiness. The reason may be that the name of the creature is pronouncd the same as the word “福”. In a nutshell， cultural factors surface from the confrontation of cultural deposits of one language with another in translation and therefore， determine the degree of translatability of metaphors and demand decisions on the part of translators.
2.2 From Linguistic Perspective
In terms of the interrelation between world languages， Nida holds that at least 90 percent of the basic underlying structures in current languages bear the same or similar features， and that language universals far outweigh the divergences. This unity of language enables messages conveyed in one language to transfer to another language. The above mentioned “losing face” is a case in point. Besides， the innate flexbility and compatibility of one language endows it with capability of directly or indirectly expressing meanings encoded in another language. For example， in the sentence “ Last term， I met my Waterloo in my English examination.” Waterloo is the Italian town where Napoleon encountered failure in 1842， hence attached with a symbolic meaning of “failure” ， which is adopted and widely recognized by Chinese people. In this case， literal translation is preferred： 上学期，我在英语考试中遭遇了滑铁卢。In other words， the metaphor “Waterloo” is translatable despite its original absence in Chinese.
However， it is not uncommon there are terms in one language that do not have counterparts in the other language， or terms with some associative and connotative meanings in one language but with no connotation in the other. For example， in the sentence “ Don’t show the white feather to the enemy”， “white feather” has the metaphorical meaning “timidess， cowardness”， but in Chinese “白色羽毛” does not trigger such an image in the readers’ mind. Another key constraint of language difference on translation lies in the phonological dimension. Take the following headline in a news report of the 2006 World Cup football match as an example： “Zidane’s a Hero to Zero”. If the headline is translated as “齐达内，从英雄到零”， the linguistic beauty in rhythem and form is totally lost， though the meaning is roughly conveyed to the target audience.
III. Techniques of Translating Metaphors
The translatability of metaphors is limited， but it does not mean that metaphors can not be translated. In fact， the degree of translatability is decided by the specific language situation. The translatability of metaphor is objective and can be achieved through subjective effort. Here are some techniques suggested for the translation of metaphors： 3.1 Retaining the Image （Absolute Literal Translation）
The analogical images of metaphors are very important， so translators should try to retain them. The images retained are not necessarily within the limit of semantic and cultural range because any language has its elasticity to interpret another language. This method of translation is applicable to the literal translation：
1） Retaining the metaphoric meaning， the image and the way of modifying：
Some books are to be tasted， others to be swallowed， and some few to be chewed and digested. （Francis Bacon）
书有浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼。
Our state to be disjoint and out of frame. （Shakespeare， Hamlet）
我们国家突然脱了节，脱了榫。
2） Retaining the image of source language and pointing out the metaphoric meanings：
Sometimes he was extravagant to downright nonsense， but with someone the glittering dross passed current for pure gold.
有时他信口雌黄，但对于有些人来说，那些漂亮话却成了金玉良言。
That guy Morrow was about as sensitive as a goddam toiled seat.
莫罗那小子就和讨厌的马桶坐垫一样麻木不仁。
3） Changing the metaphor in source language into a simile in target language：
It was two thirty of a summer afternoon， and this busy hive of industry generally tended to slacken off at that hour. （P. G Wodehouse）
时值夏季，下午两点三十分，这个本来一窝蜂似的地方照例也有点优哉游哉了。
Britain’s economic policy is now being pulled by the magnet of the next election. （The Economist）
下一次大选磁铁般地牵引着英国的经济政策。
4） Retaining the image of source language and footnoting some additional explanation. This method is used when the degree of translatability is low.
Even before they were acquainted， he had admired Osborn in secret. Now he was his valet， his dog， his man Friday. （M. W. Thackeray， Vanity Fair）
在他没有认识奥斯本之前，已经暗暗佩服他。如今便成了他的听差，他的狗，他的忠仆星期五。
Translator footnotes that the character Friday is from Robinson Crusoe and that he is the loyal servant of Robinson， otherwise the readers will not accept the translation.
3.2 Changing the Image （Relative Literal Translation）
As mentioned above， when the degree of translatability of metaphors is low， the analogical images can not be retained， so in order to reserve the information carried by the source language， the translator can replace it with another image which can be better understood by Chinese people and can help them have the same aesthetic sense as the natives do. For example：
Also， he had money in his pocket， and， in the old days when a pay day， he made the money fly. 还有，当他口袋里有钱的时候，像过去发薪的日子一样，他挥金如土。
By the time he was thirty-five he had a large and a lucrative practice， he had amassed a competence， and he stood on the threshold of a distinguished career.
他35岁时就门庭如市，收入可观，累累胜诉，声名显赫，前程似锦。
When replacing the original images， the translator should specially take care that some very typical Chinese metaphors should be avoided； otherwise the translation will be dubious and even funny. For example， if we translate "to hold a candle to the devil" into “助纣为虐”， the readers will be puzzled： Is there also a tyrant called Zhou in English history？
3.3 Abandoning the Image （Free Translation）
If the images of source language can neither be retained nor be replaced， the only way is to abandon them and reproduce the information with some plain words. Of course， inevitably， the original aesthetic feelings may disappear， so what the translator should do is just trying to take full advantage of Chinese and choose some impressive words to make up for the loss. In this case， four-word idioms are good choices. There are many examples of this kind. For instance， we translate “armed to teeth” into “全副武装”， “as cold as ice” into “天寒地冻”. It is also the case with the following sentences：
The ship plows the sea. 船乘风破浪地前进。
By the winter of 1942 their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow.
到了1942年冬季，他们对纳粹恐怖统治的抵抗已经名存实亡了。
It’s very plain the old man and I will remain at daggers drawn to the end of our lives， and that I have nothing to expect from him. （Charles Dickens）
IV. Conclusion
The translation of metaphors is not so easy a task that we can fulfill with all the requirements and techniques. As metaphors have rich cultural connotations， in order to achieve successful translation of English metaphors， a translator should cultivate and continually enhance his own cultural awareness. This requires a translator to have both bilingual competence and bicultural or even multi-cultural knowledge in order to adapt to effective communication in different cultural context.
Bibliography
1. Low Ganhamd. “On Teaching Metaphor” in Applied Linguistics， Vol. 9， No.2. Oxford： Oxford University Press， 1988.
2. Mark Shuttle-worth & Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies. St.Jerome Publishing， 1997.
3. 郭文涛，从美学角度看英语比喻的对等翻译，《外国语》，1996年第2期。
4. 束定方，隐喻学研究[M]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000。
5. 叶子南，高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]。北京： 清华大学出版社，2001。
作者简介：邱采真（1966—），女，硕士，副教授，研究方向：语言学、英语教学法。