Nanoimmunology is the interdiscipline of nanotechnology and immunology that covers the nano-bio interaction studies in immune systems and pathogens.Since immune cells play the major role in the bioprocess of engineering nanomaterials(ENMs)exposed to mammalian systems,the nanoimmunology studies would greatly benefit the biosafety assessments and biomedical applications of ENMs.Herein,we investigated the interaction mechanisms of macrophages with ENMs including rare earth(RE)and graphene oxide(GO)nanoparticles.By exploring the toxicity mechanisms,we successfully established predictive paradigms to evaluate the lung toxicity of RE and GO materials,which allowed us to perform further investigations on hazard ranking and structure-activity relationships.This nanoimmunology information could significantly assist the safe design of RE-based upconversion nanoparticles to improve their sustainable use.Considering the safety concern of GO nanoparticles,we demonstrated the use of GO as antibacterial coatings on medical devices to prevent pathogen growth,especially super bugs,which have been considered as one of the greatest threats to human health in recent World Health Organization reports and the 2016 G20 summit.